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The English Teacher Vol XXIV October 1995 'LEARNING HOW TO LEARN' IN THE STUDY OF ESL
Ng Keat Slew
ABSTRACT
This paper hopes to disseminate the teaching of learning strategies in ESL as a means to 'learning how to learn'. The rationale for the teaching of learning how to learn in ESL is to help students to be effective learners and to be autonomous in their learning. The paper also identifies the specific strategies relevant to ESL, learning - memory strategies, cognitive strategies and metacognitive strategies.
Introduction 'Learning how to learn' is an extremely important and essential skill in the study of English Second Language. This conclusion is based on many factors. The reports of the negative behavioral syndrome seen in ESL learners who lack this skill is one such factor. The other factor which lends support to the learning of this skill is based on the cognitive learning theory which highlights the important function of 'procedural knowledge', a type of knowledge related to knowing how to do things. An additional reason justifying the necessity to 'learn how to learn' is drawn from the research conducted on ESL learners who have become effective in their study of ESL because they have employed learning strategies which teach them 'how to learn'. This first part of the paper puts forward a case for the teaching of 'learning how to learn' in ESL, while the second part presents the three major categories of learning strategies and their accompanying abilities which develop the skill of 'learning how to learn' in the study of ESL.
Problems caused by not knowing how to learn Some students of ESL move easily through the ESL course achieving success. Others stumble year after year requiring help and special tuition and along the way, negative behaviour syndrome and many learning problems are developed. Rath (1967) outlines seven problems related to the negative behavioral syndrome. Firstly, he identifies impulsiveness as one such syndrome. When students are impulsive they do not stop to think or to deliberate on the tasks at hand nor do they consider the problems and their alternatives. Overdependence on teachers is also another syndrome which often results in an inability to plan and to execute certain tasks on their own. Thirdly, very often students cannot concentrate or pay attention to what they are doing and easily get side-tracked. This results in failure in their work and they often also miss the connection between means and ends. Rigidity or inflexibility in thinking is yet another negative effect resulting in an inability to review alternatives, to hypothesize and to consider a number of possible solutions to a problem. Another syndrome is dogmatic and assertive behavior. This is seen when students make assertions that cannot stand up to critical scrutiny or is not supported by evidence. One other syndrome is the extreme lack of confidence. As students lack the experience of successful thinking and the opportunity to share their thinking operations with others, they lose their confidence and even stop to volunteer a response to a question which involves thinking and thus the students get very little out of their work. Finally students who do not know 'how to learn' build resistance to thinking. They are unwilling to carry out thinking operations on their own and expect their teachers to outline what is to be done for them. Given the serious negative effects that may arise due to the lack of emphasis in this area of 'learning how to learn', the importance of this area of training cannot be overemphasized and should be taught especially in the study of ESL.
Cognitive Learning Theory The second factor which supports the need to include this 'learning to learn' dimension in the study of ESL is based on the cognitive learning theory as well as on the various research findings of the positive effects of 'learning how to learn' in ESL learners. Cognitive theory suggests that linguistics information is stored as declarative knowledge (what we know) and as procedural knowledge (what we know about how to do something'). Declarative knowledge is stored in the form of schemata, framework or as meaningful information. In ESL therefore, the declarative knowledge could be facts about language functions or forms etc. Procedural knowledge, on the other hand, is stored as knowledge of systematic procedures and rules of how to do things. Both these types of knowledge have specific roles in language learning. Procedural knowledge helps to transform, subsequently helps to link it to previous knowledge in the memory. In this way, procedural knowledge serves as an information processor and it also serves to aid 'learning to learn'. Hence, it is logical to assume that learning cannot take place without procedural knowledge which plays a highly vital role in the learning process. Procedural knowledge can be likened to what Joyce and Weil (1972) refer to as information processing knowledge which is: "…the way in which people handle stimuli from the environment, organize data, sense problems, generate concepts and solutions to problems and employ verbal and non-verbal symbols."Procedural knowledge is also a function of the brain according to Smith (1972). The brain, according to him is considered to be an organ whose primary function is: "to actively seek, organize, store and at appropriate times, retrieve and utilize information about the world."Procedural knowledge helps students to acquire bodies of information or knowledge to process the information in their environment. In order to attain procedural knowledge, learners need to develop their skills in thinking and in 'learning how to learn'. However to develop these skills, learners need to learn how to use strategies specific to learning. In the language classroom, learners use their learning strategies when they are actively involved in mental activities such as analyzing data to form abstractions, concepts, generalizations and theories about the language they are learning. By employing learning strategies which develop their thinking skills, they will ultimately 'learn how to learn'.
Research findings of positive effects of Learning How to Learn When learners employ learning strategies in their learning, they use their thinking skills which help contribute to success in learning. Successful language learners generally use appropriate learning strategies and these strategies account for their outstanding performance because they know how to think and learn. (Naiman, Frohlich & Todesco, 1975; Rubin, 1975, 1981; Wenden, 1985). Conversely, inappropriate application of learning strategies often accounts for and explains the frequent failures of' poor language learners. (Hosenfeld, 1979). From research we all know that teaching of learning strategies can enhance language learning and we have also gained insights into ways to incorporate the training of strategy use into the instructional plans. One dominant advantage of being able to use appropriate learning strategies is that this ability helps one to take responsibility of one's learning. In fact, the most important type of learning is 'learning how to learn'. This can enhance learner autonomy and self-direction. For this kind of learning, learners have to actively assimilate new information into their mental structures (Bates, 1972; Osgood, 1972). In language learning, learners have to work with the language and then gradually refine their own linguistic understanding. Subsequently, with a great deal of practice, they become proficient in the second language on their own. This is 'learning how to learn'. Hence, the use of appropriate learning strategies that are able to encourage independent learning should be developed in ESL teaching. Yet another advantage of teaching learning strategies is the help it can give weak learners of language. Such a course can help learners overcome the many difficulties faced in language learning. Research has shown that the training of learning strategies can help learners improve in their language study. (Denny & Murphy, 1986; Dansereau, 1987, O'Malley, Russo, Chamot, Stewner-Manzanares, & Kupper, 1983).
What are Learning Strategies There have been various definitions for the term learning strategies in the literature. Strategies have been referred to as "techniques, tactics, potentially conscious plans, consciously employed operations, learning skills, functional skills, cognitive abilities, problem processing procedures." Wenden (1987) describes learning strategies as language behavior learners engage in to learn and to regulate their learning of ESL. Chamot (1987), on the other hand, defines learning strategies as techniques, approaches or deliberate actions that students take to facilitate the learning and recall of both linguistic and content areas of information. The definition of O'Malley et al (1983) on learning strategies is any set of operations, steps, plans, routines used by learners to facilitate the obtaining, storage and retrieval of information. All these definitions have one common element in that learning strategies equip learners by helping them to regulate, to facilitate, to store and to retrieve learning. In short, learning strategies help students 'learning how to learn'.
Learning Strategies Relevant to ESL Learning From empirical research such as formal observations, interviews, self-reports, survey, and factor analysis study, many researchers have identified learning strategies and have gathered a substantial body of data. They have also developed taxonomies of language strategies. The following are three major sets or classes of strategies according to their different mental processing that encode incoming information and their different purposes. They comprise memory strategies, cognitive strategies and metacognitive strategies derived from the findings by Weinstein (1979); Sticht (1979); Block (1986); Chesterfield (1985); Rubin (1987): O'Malley (1985): Chamot (1988) and Oxford (1986). By using the three sets of strategies, learning in ESL is expected to improve because learners learn how to think and how to learn. Below is a list of learning strategies and the abilities related to the strategies.
Memory Strategies Memory strategies as the name suggests have a highly specific function in that they help learners to store and to retrieve new information. The groups of strategies in this set comprise the following: A. Creating Mental Images is a technique to help ESL learners turn information that they have understood into something easy to remember and retain for long periods in their memory. It consists of building memory by forming pictures while reading, listening to new expressions, learning grammar rules, and vocabulary. For example, when words from reading leave pictures, sounds and feelings in the learners mind, mental images are created. Creating mental images helps learners to build their memory. In order to be able to create images in language learning, learners should be able to do the following:
Cognitive Strategies The second set of learning strategies is cognitive strategies. Cognitive strategies deal with techniques used by learners to manipulate incoming information and later to retrieve what has been stored. Cognitive strategies also enable learners to understand and produce new language by different means. This set of strategies comprise the following six strategies:
rephrase the contents of texts using different words.D. Summarizing is a strategy which involves stating the most important ideas in an abbreviated and condensed form. To summarize learners have to identify writer's main ideas and supporting details and to combine them to develop a brief or condensed paragraph. The skills involved consists of being able to decide:
Metacognitive Strategies The metacognitive strategies are methods which help learners to approach a task or to attain a goal. The application of the strategies helps learners to control their cognition. In other words, it is to coordinate their learning by using different functions. The metacognitive strategies comprise the following:
Conclusion This paper has shown that it is definitely beneficial for learners of ESL to 'learn how to learn' by employing relevant memory strategies, cognitive strategies and metacognitive strategies in their study. Learning strategies can not only produce positive effects on learning, but also eliminate the fossilized negative behavioral syndrome in learners. In addition, learners too learn to be autonomous in their search for knowledge and to take responsibility of their own learning. Since learning strategies that train 'learning how to learn' are teachable, a programme of study should be planned. The contents and processes of teaching these strategies can be easily defined in the form of structured lessons and exercises can be designed to train learning strategies.
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